Guptan administration

ADMINISTRATION

"Golden age of India" redirects here. For that of Shah Jahan also known as the Golden age, see Mughal Empire.

Gupta Empire
3rd century CE–543 CE
Approximate extent of the Gupta territories (purple) in 375 CE.
Approximate extent of the Gupta territories (purple) in 450 CE.
Capital	Pataliputra
Common languages	Sanskrit (literary and academic); Prakrit (vernacular)
Religion	Hinduism Buddhism Jainism
Government	Monarchy
• c. late 3rd century	Gupta(first)
• c. 540 – c. 550 CE	Vishnugupta
Historical era	Ancient India
• Established	3rd century CE
• Disestablished	543 CE
Area
400 est.[1]	3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi)
440 est.[2]	1,700,000 km2 (660,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by Nagas of Padmavati Western Satraps Later Guptas Maukhari Maitraka Vardhana dynasty Mathara dynasty Varman dynasty Kalachuris

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire existing from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE to 543 CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 543 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent.^[3] This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by some historians.^{[4][note 1]} The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by the king Sri Gupta; the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II alias Vikramaditya. The 5th-century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and others.^{[6][non-primary source needed]}

The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. Many of the literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonised during this period.^[7] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa,^[8] Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.^[9][10][11] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.^[10] The period gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that "set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent course of art, not only in India but far beyond her borders".^[12] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in South Asia and Southeast Asia.^{[13][unreliable source?]} The Puranas, earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period.^[14]

The empire eventually died out because of many factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia.^[15][16] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.

Chandragupta2

CHANDRAGUPTA\

Chandragupta II ( 380 – c. 415 CE), also known by his title Vikramaditya, was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta Empire in northern India.

Chandragupta continued the expansionist policy of his father Samudragupta: historical evidence suggests that he defeated the Western Kshatrapas, and extended the Gupta empire from the Indus River in the west to the Bengal region in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Narmada River in the south. His daughter Prabhavatigupta was a queen of the southern Vakataka kingdom, and he may have had influence in the Vakataka territory during her regency.

The Gupta empire reached its zenith during the rule of Chandragupta. Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited India during his reign, suggests that he ruled over a peaceful and prosperous kingdom. The legendary figure of Vikramaditya is probably based on Chandragupta II (among other kings), and the noted Sanskrit poet Kalidasa may have been his court poet.

Samudragupta

Samudragupta

Samudragupta (335/350-375 CE) was a ruler of the Gupta Empire of Ancient India. As a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi, he greatly expanded his dynasty's political power.

The Allahabad Pillar inscription, a prashasti (eulogy) composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive military conquests. It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories to his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far as the Pallava kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. His empire extended from Ravi River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were his tributaries.

Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to prove his imperial sovereignty, and according to his coins, remained undefeated. His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an accomplished poet, and also played music. His expansionist policy was continued by his son Chandragupta II.

Founder of the Gupta Dynasty

CHANDRAGUPTA I

Chandragupta I (319-335 or 319-350 CE) was a king of the Gupta dynasty, who ruled in northern India. His title Maharajadhiraja ("king of great kings") suggests that he was the first emperor of the dynasty. It is not certain how he turned his small ancestral kingdom into an empire, although a widely accepted theory among modern historians is that his marriage to the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi helped him extend his political power. Their son Samudragupta further expanded the Gupta empire

Chandragupta was a son of the Gupta king Ghatotkacha, and a grandson of the dynasty's founder Gupta, both of whom are called Maharaja ("great king") in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Chandragupta assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and issued gold coins, which suggests that he was the first imperial ruler of the dynasty.^[5][6]

Chandragupta certainly reigned in the first quarter of the 4th century CE, but the exact period of his reign is uncertain.^[7] His assumption of the title Maharajadhiraja has led to suggestions that he founded the Gupta calendar era, and that the epoch of this era marks his coronation.^[8] Based on this argument, several historians, including V. A. Smith and P. L. Gupta, date Chandragupta's ascension to 319-320 CE, which they believe to be the beginning of the Gupta era.^[9] However, this is merely an assumption, and the identity of the founder of the Gupta era is not certain.^[10] Some historians, such as D. C. Sircar and R. C. Majumdar, theorize that the Gupta era marks the coronation of his son Samudragupta.^[11] S. R. Goyal theorizes that the era was started by the later king Chandragupta II, but its beginning was dated to Samudragupta's ascension.^[8]

Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age. However, the exact period of his reign is debated.^[12]

Various estimates for Chandragupta's reign include:

• A. S. Altekar: 305-325 CE^[10]
• S. R. Goyal: 319-350 CE^[10]
• Tej Ram Sharma: 319-353 CE^[13]
• Upinder Singh: 319-335 CE or 319-350 CE^[14]

Marriage to Kumaradevi[edit]

Chandragupta married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. Lichchhavi is the name of an ancient clan that was headquartered at Vaishali in present-day Bihar during the time of Gautama Buddha. A Lichchhavi kingdom existed in the present-day Nepal in the first millennium CE. However, the identity of Kumaradevi's Lichchhavi kingdom is not certain.^[15]

An 8th century inscription of the Lichchhavi dynasty of Nepal claims that their legendary ancestor Supushpa was born in the royal family of Pushpapura, that is, Pataliputra in Magadha. According to some historians, such as V. A. Smith, the Lichchhavis ruled at Pataliputra during Samudragupta's time. However, this inscription states that Supushpa ruled 38 generations before the 5th century king Manadeva, that is, centuries before Chandragupta's period. Therefore, the claim made in this inscription, even if true, cannot be taken as concrete evidence of the Lichchhavi rule at Pataliputra during Chandragupta's time.^[15]

The Lichchhavi kingdom of Kumaradevi is unlikely to have been located in present-day Nepal, because Samudragupta's Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Nepala (that is, Nepal) as a distinct, subordinate kingdom. Given lack of any other evidence, historian R. C. Majumdar assumed that during Chandragupta's time, the Lichchhavis ruled at Vaishali, which is the only other base of the clan known from the historical records.^[15]

Impact of marriage[edit]

A coin depicting Chandragupta and Kumaradevi

The gold coins attributed to Chandragupta bear portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, and the legend Lichchhavayah ("the Lichchhavis").^[5][16] Their son Samudragupta is described as Lichchhavi-dauhitra ("Lichchhavi daughter's son") in the Gupta inscriptions.^[16] Except Kumaradevi, these inscriptions do not mention the paternal family of the dynasty's queens, which suggests that the Gupta family considered Kumaradevi's marriage to Chandragupta an important event.^[6]

Numismatist John Allan theorized that Chandragupta defeated a Lichchhavi kingdom headquartered at Vaishali, and that Kumaradevi's marriage to him happened as part of a peace treaty.^[5] He suggested that the Guptas considered this marriage a prestigious one simply because of the ancient lineage of the Lichchhavis.^[6] However, the ancient text Manusamhita regards the Lichchhavis as "unorthodox and impure" (vratya). Therefore, it is unlikely that the Guptas proudly mentioned Samudragupta's Lichchhavi ancestry to increase their social prestige.^[16] Also, it is unlikely that the Guptas allowed the name of the Lichchhavis to appear on the dynasty's coins after defeating them.^[17]

It is more likely that the marriage helped Chandragupta extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the title Maharajadhiraja.^[6] The appearance of the Lichchhavis' name on the coins is probably symbolic of their contribution to the expansion of the Gupta power.^[18] After the marriage, Chandragupta probably became the ruler of the Lichchhavi territories. Alternatively, it is possible that the Gupta and the Lichchhavi states formed a union, with Chandragupta and Kumaradevi being regarded as the sovereign rulers of their respective states, until the reign of their son Samudragupta, who became the sole ruler of the united kingdom.^[16]

Extent of kingdom[edit]

Little is known about Chandragupta other than his ancestry, his marriage, and his expansion of the Gupta power, as evident from his title Maharajadhiraja.^[7] The territorial extent of Chandragupta's kingdom is not known, but it must have been substantially larger than that of the earlier Gupta kings, as Chandragupta bore the title Maharajadhiraja.^[19] Modern historians have attempted to determine the extent of his kingdom based on the information from the Puranas and the Allahabad Pillar inscription issued by his son Samudragupta.^[20]

The Allahabad Pillar inscription names several kings subjugated by Samudragupta. Based on the identity of these kings, several modern historians have tried to determine the extent of the territory that he must have inherited from Chandragupta. For example, since the king of the northern part of the Bengal region is not mentioned among the kings subjugated by Samudragupta, these historians theorize that northern Bengal was a part of Chandragupta's kingdom. However, such conclusions cannot be made with certainty, as the identity of several of the kings subjugated by Samudragupta is a matter of debate.^[19] Nevertheless, the information from the inscription can be used to determine the territories that were not a part of Chandragupta's kingdom:^[21]

• In the west, Chandragupta's kingdom probably did not extend much beyond Prayaga (modern Allahabad), as Samudragupta defeated the kings of present-day western Uttar Pradesh.^[21]
• In the south, Chandragupta's kingdom did not include the Mahakoshal area of Central India, as Samudragupta defeated the kings of the forest region, which is identified with this area.^[21]
• In the east, Chandragupta's kingdom did not include southern Bengal, because the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Samatata in that region as a frontier kingdom.^[21] Moreover, the Delhi Iron Pillar inscription suggests that Vanga kingdom in that region was conquered by the later king Chandragupta II.^[22]
• In the north, the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Nepala (in present-day Nepal) as a frontier kingdom.^[23]

A passage in the Vayu Purana states that the Guptas ruled over Saketa (modern Ayodhya), Prayaga, and Magadha. Based on this, multiple modern scholars have theorized that Chandragupta ruled over these territories.^[19] However, this conclusion is not certain, as the Vayu Purana does not mention the name of a specific ruler.^[24] Scholars critical of this theory argue that the passage describes the territories of either the dynasty's founder Gupta or its 6th century rulers who oversaw the kingdom's decline.^[25] Critics also point out that the corresponding passage in the Vishnu Purana states that the Guptas and the Magadhas jointly ruled over Prayaga and Magadha, and does not mention Saketa at all. The corresponding passage in the various manuscripts of Bhagavata Purana either does not mention the word "Gupta", or uses it as a common noun meaning "protected" instead of using it as the name of a specific dynasty. Even somes manuscripts of the Vayu Purana use the words "Guhya", "sapta" or "Manidhanyaka" instead of "Gupta".^[19] Supporters of the theory dismiss these as scribal mistakes. Historian Ashvini Agrwal argues that the Vayu Purana passage cannot be a reference to the Gupta territories during the empire's period of decline, as it does not mention Bengal, which formed a part of the Gupta kingdom during this period.^[21]

According to historian R. C. Majumdar, Chandragupta's kingdom may have included the whole of present-day Bihar, and a part of present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bengal.^[19] Historian Dilip Kumar Ganguly believes that he ruled a large kingdom extending from Allahabad in the west to the Ganges river in Bengal in the east; the kingdom excluded south-eastern Bengal (Samatata), northern Bengal (Vanga), eastern Bengal, and western Bengal (the kingdom of Chandravarman).^[26] Historian Ashvini Agrwal states that his kingdom included central and eastern Uttar Pradesh (including Prayaga and Awadh), and Bihar; but not Bengal.^[22]